Frankincense : A detailed look into the essential oil profile.
Boswellia carteri.
Botanical origin and production method
Frankincense, also known as olibanum is a resin formed in the bark of the Boswellia tree species. Olibanum is thought to get its name from the Latin, olium lubanum meaning oil from Lebanon. Boswellia carteri is a member of the Burseraceae family, it is native to Somalia and is the most widely used Frankincense oil for therapeutic purposes. There are many other species within the family including B. sacra, B. frereana, B. papyifera and B. serrata. B. sacra, which is the finest frankincense oil, also known as the ‘holy frankincense’ has its origins in Oman, Yemen and southern Saudi Arabia. The genus Boswellia has 21 known species but according to Eslamieh there are only 19 different species, and the other appear to be synonyms of the original species (Eslamieh, 2017 cited by Ahmed Al-Harrasi et al 2019). Based on recent publications (DeCarlo et al., 2018; Eslamieh, 2017; Niebler and Buettner, 2016; Paul et al., 2012), B. carterii and B sacra are now considered as the same species that differ in their habitat and this is the reason it often appears as Boswellia sacra (syn B. carteri). Boswellia carteri is native to Africa and Boswellia sacra is native to South Arabia (Oman and Yemen).
The Boswellia tree originates from the mountainous areas of western India, southern Arabia and north-eastern africa. Somalia and Ethiopia are two of the major Frankincense-producing countries (Arctander 1994 cited in Battaglia 2003) It is a small deciduous tree, growing to a height of three to seven meters, with abundant narrow leaves and white or pale-pink flowers (Mojay, 1997). The resin is found in the bark of the tree and is collected by making incisions which allows a milky-white liquid to exude. This then hardens into an amber / orange-brown resin which is sorted and graded before being steam-distilled for its essential oil. There are many different characteristics that determine the quality and the grade of the oil including; age, appearance, moisture level, colour, shape, size and odour (Battaglia 2003). One resin could appear pale-yellow, tear-shaped and the size of a pea. While another grade could be orange-red, egg-shaped and the size of a walnut. The tears could also firmly stick together into large lumps. ‘There is no simple rule to determine which colour of Frankincense ‘tears’ or ‘lumps’ will yield the best oil’ (Leung, Foster 1996 cited in Battaglis 2003).
Boswellia carteri is mainly extracted by steam distillation. ‘Around 3-10% oil to 60%-70% resin’ (Julia Lawless 2017) The oil can also be drawn out through Carbon dioxide extraction (CO₂ extraction). CO₂ is one of the newer methods of extraction. It is a type of solvent extraction however, unlike other solvents, because carbon dioxide is a natural substance, it is completely environmentally friendly. The gas is put under a huge amount of pressure which transforms into a liquid and used as a solvent. One of the main differences with CO2 extraction is that it is carried out at relatively low temperatures. This means that the resulting extract is not affected by heat and can often smell more like the scent of the original plant material. A CO2 extract can also bring out components that can't be extracted with steam which gives a different chemical composition to the extract and a more complex, vibrant scent. This is particularly of interest to people who are using frankincense in perfumery. As with steam distilled essential oils the end result can vary depending on the conditions during extraction. However its chemical profile and scent isn't too different to the steam distilled oil so it's likely that it would have many of the same uses.Frankincense carteri CO₂ are a more specialist oil and will usually be at a higher price point just like absolutes.
Sadly, Boswellia carterii trees are in trouble, They are on our sustainability watchlist due to overharvesting and exploitation of community workers. (Aromatics International). The frankincense the trees produce is a vital source of income to the workers in Somaliland however the over-harvesting is putting the trees’ survival at a high risk.
Dr Anjanette DeCarlo, an environmental sustainability expert is working on the ground to develop ways of making the harvesting of frankincense more sustainable. She is the project director of conserve the Cal Madow frankincense systems analysis. The Cal Madow is a mountain range where the frankincense trees grow. Her research began 6 years ago looking at the supply chain - where the resin comes from and it’s journey to the international markets. Now the focus is looking at fair prices, price paid to harvesters / land owners and also tree health and the high levels and demands for the resin. The research will look at forest density, population and age structure and developing best practices for managing trees sustainably. In 2017 DeCarlo spoke in an interview with Horn Diplomat. At the time they were 25% of the way through the research and found that there was severe overharvesting of trees. The price was rising and so was the demand in the market. The Somalilanders do not have many economic opportunities and so their natural resource is being over harvested in order for them to survive. Dr DeCarlo and her team have been working with locals and elders of the community, taking ethnographic interviews and research to learn what the traditional practices have been of these trees over the centuries. Fusing this information with modern science to come up with the best way forward in conserving the trees and forests. (Dr Anjanette DeCarlo 2017)
Historical & Cultural information
The Egyptians were the first to obtain Frankincense from the land of Punt which is believed to have been a region in Somalia. ‘It’s English name is derived from the medieval French word ‘franc’ meaning “pure” or “free” and the Latin, incensium “to smoke”.’ ( Mojay 1997, page 74)
Frankincense has an extremely ancient and very well recorded history. ‘It has been perhaps the most important aromatic incense ingredient since history began’ (Mojay 1997, page 74) Used throughout the centuries of ancient civilisation, it has played a very important role in the religious and domestic lives of Ancient Egypt, Persian, Hebrew, Greek and Roman cultures. Often used as an important ingredient in cosmetics and incense, the Egyptians used frankincense as an ingredient in their famous kyphi, a renowned scent used and worn by them. They also charred the frankincense to make a black powder, Kohl, which Egyptian women used to paint their eyelids. One of the most famous references to frankincense was in the Bible where it was mentioned a total of 22 times. It was given as a gift, (along with gold and myrhh) to baby Jesus. (Mojay, 1997) It continues to be used in many Christian churches today and is heavily used in the United Arab Emirates by Muslim inhabitants. It is used to scent children, houses and mosques. They say that a dirty smelly body is vulnerable to evil and that the scented body is surrounded by angels. They believe that frankincense is the most useful scent to rid of these evil spirits and attract the angels and for this reason spaces are censed weekly (Battaglia 2003).
Chemistry
Chemical breakdowns can vary depending on the sample that is tested. Growth, soil, climate, production and distillation processes are all factors that affect essential oil chemistry. Below we see 3 samples of the composition of B.carterii.
S. Battaglia cites a typical chemical composition of Boswellia Carterii (Lawrence 1995, cited Battaglia 2003):
a-pinene 1.0-4.6% - monoterpene
a-thujene 0.0-1.5% - monoterpene
Octyl acetate 50-60% - ester
Octanol 3.5-12.7% - ester
Incenysl acetate 3.0-4.1% - ester
Incensol 2.1-2.7% - ester
Limonene 1.7-2.4% - monoterpene
Linalool 0.2-2.5% - monoterpenol
Cembrene <2.3% - diterpene
Isocembrene <1.8%
1,8 cineole <1.6% - oxide
(E)-B-ocimene 1.5-1.5% - monoterpene
Camphene <1.1% monoterpene
I. Martin gives a breakdown of Boswellia Carterii (Martin 2007):
a- pinene 3-30% monoterpene
P-cymene 5-10% monoterpene
a-terpinene 5-8% monoterpene
Also small amounts of sesquiterpenes and esters.
Tisserand cites breakdown of Boswellia sacra (syn. B. carterii) (a-pinene CT) (Tisserand 2013):
a-Pinene 10.3-51.3% monoterpene
a-Phellandrene 0-41.8% monoterpene
(+) - Limonene 6.0-21.9% monoterpene
B-Myrcene -0-20.7% monoterpene
B-Pinene 0-9.1% monoterpene
B-Caryophyllene 1.9-7.5% sesquiterpene
p-Cymene 0-7.5% monoterpene
Terpinen-4-ol 0-6.9% monoterpenol
Verbenone 0-6.5% monoterpene
Sabinene 0-5.5% monoterpene
Linalool 0-5.4% monoterpenol
a-Thujene 0-4.5% monoterpene
Bornyl acetate 0-2.9% ester
3-Carene 0-2.6% monoterpene
Cadinene 0-2.3% sesquiterpenes
Camphene 0-2.0% monoterpene
a-Caryophyllene 0-1.8% sesquiterpene
Campholenic aldehyde 0-1.5% aldehyde
Octyl acetate 0-1.5% ester
Caryophyllene oxide 0-1.4% epoxide
a-Copaene 0-1.4% sesquiterpene
Calamene 0-1.3% sesquiterpenoid
Thujol 0-1.2% monoterpene
1,8-Cineole 0-1.0% ether
(E)-Cinnamyl acetate 0-1.0% ester
(Hall 2000)
Safety
Monoterpenes are prone to oxidation and skin sensitisation is a risk. Tisserand, (2014) suggests the addition of an antioxidant to preparations containing these oils is recommended. He goes on to explain that the low reproductive toxicity of sabiene, a-pinene (+)-limonene and octyl acetate suggests that frankincense oils are not hazardous in pregnancy.
Although the chemical breakdown of the three batches are different it is clear that they all present with a high level of monoterpenes. Monoterpenes are known to be skin penetrating, immune stimulating , analgesic, antiseptic, antiviral, decongestant and general tonic.
Therapeutic properties and actions
Boswellia carterii is rich in the monoterpene a-pinene. Alpha-pinene is a terpene found in a number of coniferous and pine trees including eucalyptus, sage and rosemary. Historically, resins containing a-pinene were widely used in Aboriginal cultures where they would treat open wounds to prevent infection. (A Williams) This is a great example of how our ancestors would have watched the natural actions of the plants in order to use it for healing our own bodies.. Trees produce the resin in order to heal their own wounds. When a tree is damaged, or a branch broken, the resin exudes from the wood where the bark has been ‘injured’. The resin covers the wound and seals it from intruders such as insects, funguses, parasites etc.
Frankincense oil possesses analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anticatarrhal, antidepressive, anti-infectious, astringent, calmative, carminative, cicatrisant, expectorant, immune tonic properties and nervous relaxant properties. It’s anti-bacterial, expectorant, anti-infections and immune properties make it a great oil for treating respiratory conditions, particularly asthma and stress-triggered asthmatic symptoms (Martin 2007). The antiseptic and mild expectorant nature also helps people with asthma as they can often develop bacterial infections in the lungs. Many other respiratory conditions such as bronchitis and laryngitis can be helped by the anti-inflammatory and anticatarrhal properties of frankincense. The anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of frankincense have been shown useful in the treatment of rheumatism, specifically rheumatoid arthritis (S, L. Price 2012). In a 2017 study it was found that frankincense ‘significantly reduced the levels of IP-10 and ICAM-1, important pro-inflammatory biomarkers, suggesting its anti-inflammatory potential.’ (Xuesheng Han et al. 2017)
Frankincense boasts powerful immunostimulant properties which have shown to be particularly useful in strengthening the immune system when treating someone through grief and loss. (S, L Price 2012) Lowered immunity is an extremely common side effect of chronic stress and so the immunostimulant and nervous restorative-relaxant properties work closely together, maintaining balance between these systems. Researchers at Mansoura University have found that ‘biologically, the oil exhibited a strong immunostimulant activity (90% lymphocyte transformation)’ (Martin 2007, page 79) Martin (2007), suggests that frankincense is an important oil that can help clients who develop infections frequently or who have lowered immunity from HIV infection or as a response to chemotherapy. Recent research has shown evidence that a-pinene has some immune-enhancing properties, especially with increased T-cell activity. In two studies where the effects on human immune function of essential oils from trees were investigated, it was found that ‘exposure to a-pinene increased T-cell activity and decreased stress hormone levels.’ (Xuesheng Han et al. 2017)
Due to it’s cicatrisant, cytophylactic and vulnerary properties, frankincense is popular in skin scare and is recommended for dry and mature skin, scars, wounds and wrinkles (Battaglia 2003)
In a recent study (Xuesheng Han et al. 2017) which was thought to be the first ever study of biological activities of Frankincense in human dermal fibroblasts, it was found that Frankincense was significantly anti-proliferative to these cells. It also discussed the role of frankincense in the wound healing process, along with the anti-inflammatory and immune-modulating properties of frankincense essential oil.
Wound healing is composed of several phases: homeostasis, inflammation, proliferation and maturation. It is an intricate process that can easily be disrupted, leading to the build up of non-healing, chronic wounds. Collagen III is secreted by fibroblasts during the wound repairing process before the discharge of collagen I. In a study by (Xuesheng Han et al. 2017) it was found that frankincense essential oil dramatically lowered the level of collagen III which is likely to improve healing by reducing the appearance of scarring.
Energetic qualities
Boswellia carterii has a cool and dry energy. In traditional chinese medicine (TCM) it is related to the element of Earth & Metal making it a great oil for reflection and also supporting grief. Mojay (1997) explains ‘Frankincense oils’ most important sphere of action must be the nervous system. Here, it’s ability to relax and yet revitalize make it excellent for treating both nervous tension and nervous exhaustion. It smooths the flow of stagnant Qi energy whenever an accumulation of stress has led to irritability, restlessness and insomnia.’ Mojay (1997) speaks of frankincense oil’s ability to smooth the flow of Qi-energy and calm the nerves makes it useful for pain relief, particularly for rheumatic, menstrual and epigastric pain. He also recommends it as an oil to aid meditation, contemplation and prayer. Removing any mental chatter, calming and stilling the mind. For everyday use it could be called upon for states of mental agitation, distraction, worry or when in a state of overwhelmedness by thoughts. As a mild tonic, it can be useful to uplift and reduce feelings of depression. Price (2012) speaks of frankincense as a tonic to the heart, decongestant, detoxifying and healing which may help to relieve any feelings of guilt around bereavement.
Conclusion
Boswellia carterii, which is also known as Boswellia sacra (syn. B carterii) is a wonderfully powerful oil, particularly for treatment where the nervous system has been compromised and the immune system is low. Frankincense has strong anti-inflammatory properties and has been found to be particularly useful in the treatment of respiratory conditions, rheumatism and wound healing. Frankincense is in danger due to being overharvested and overharvesting. There is a lot of work being done with environmental scientists and the local communities in Somaliland however, as aromatherapists we must ensure that we do our part in protecting frankincense oil. Be mindful with the quantities we use, how we use the oil, purchasing from reputable companies (Materia Aromatica and Oshadhi) and keeping updated on the research and environmental status of the trees and oil. For centuries frankincense has been providing us with peace, calm and serenity. We must return these actions to the trees, and honour them in our practices.
References
Eslamieh J. 2017, The Genus Boswellia. A Book’s Mind, USA cited in Al-Harrasia A, Rene Csukb, Khana A, Hussaina J, 2019, Distribution of the anti-inflammatory and anti-depressant compounds: Incensole and incensole acetate in genus Boswellia Available here: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031942218306319?via%3Dihub#!
De Carlo et al. 2018 Chemical Variation in Essential Oils from the Oleo‐gum Resin of Boswellia carteri: A Preliminary Investigation, Eslamieh J. 2017, The Genus Boswellia. A Book’s Mind, USA, Niebler J. Buettner A. 2016 Frankincense Revisited, Part I: Comparative Analysis of Volatiles in Commercially Relevant Boswellia Species, Paul M et al 2012, Chemotaxonomic investigations on resins of the frankincense species Boswellia papyrifera, Boswellia serrata and Boswellia sacra, respectively, Boswellia carterii : a qualitative and quantitative approach by chromatographic and spectroscopic methodology, cited in Al-Harrasia A, Rene Csukb, Khana A, Hussaina J, 2019, Distribution of the anti-inflammatory and anti-depressant compounds: Incensole and incensole acetate in genus Boswellia Available here: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031942218306319?via%3Dihub#!
Arctander S, 1994, Perfume and flavour materials of natural origin, USA, Allured Publishing, USA, cited in Battaglia S, 2003, The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy, 2nd Edition, Australia, The International Centre of Holistic Aromatherapy
Mojay G, 1997, Aromatherapy for Healing the Spirit, Rochester, Vermont, Healing Art Press.
Battaglia S, 2003, The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy, 2nd Edition, Australia, The International Centre of Holistic Aromatherapy
Leung A, Foster S 1996, Encyclopedia of common natural ingredients used in food, drugs and cosmetics, 2nd edition, USA, John Wiley and Sons Inc. cited in Battaglia S. 2003, The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy, Second Edition, Australia, The International Centre of Holistic Aromatherapy
Lawless J. 2017, The Complete Aromatherapy & Essential oils sourcebook, UK, Harper Collins
Horn Diplomat (2017), Somaliland:Exclusive interview with Dr. Anjanette DeCarlo on the frankincense economy and on being an American working in Somaliland Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qm4Rp9Gkxf8
Mojay G. 1997, Aromatherapy for Healing the Spirit, Rochester, Vermont, Healing Art Press.
Mojay G. 1997, Aromatherapy for Healing the Spirit, Rochester, Vermont, Healing Art Press.
Mojay G. 1997, Aromatherapy for Healing the Spirit, Rochester, Vermont, Healing Art Press.
Battaglia S, 2003, The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy, 2nd Edition, Australia, The International Centre of Holistic Aromatherapy
Lawrence B. 1995, Essential oils 1992 - 1994, USA, Allured Publishing cited in Battaglia S. 2003, The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy, Second Edition, Australia, The International Centre of Holistic Aromatherapy
Martin I. 2007, Aromatherapy for Massage Practitioners, Baltimore, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Tisserand R. 2003 Essential Oil Safety: A Guide for Health Care Professionals-, 2e, UK, Churchill Livingstone
Tisserand R. 2003 Essential Oil Safety: A Guide for Health Care Professionals-, 2e, UK, Churchill Livingstone
Williams A. Terpene Profile: Alpha-Pinene. Available at: https://monq.com/eo/terpenes/alpha-pinene/
Martin I. 2007, Aromatherapy for Massage Practitioners, Baltimore, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Price S & Price L. 2012, Aromatherapy for Health Professionals 4th Edition, Leicestershire, UK, Churchill Livingstone
Han X, Rodriguez D, L.Parker T, 2017 Biological activities of frankincense essential oil in human dermal fibroblasts, Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214008517300020#!
Price S & Price L. 2012, Aromatherapy for Health Professionals 4th Edition, Leicestershire, UK, Churchill Livingstone
Martin I. 2007, Aromatherapy for Massage Practitioners, Baltimore, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Martin I. 2007, Aromatherapy for Massage Practitioners, Baltimore, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Han X, Rodriguez D, L.Parker T, 2017 Biological activities of frankincense essential oil in human dermal fibroblasts, Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214008517300020#!
Battaglia S, 2003, The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy, 2nd Edition, Australia, The International Centre of Holistic Aromatherapy
Han X, Rodriguez D, L.Parker T, 2017 Biological activities of frankincense essential oil in human dermal fibroblasts, Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214008517300020#!
Han X, Rodriguez D, L.Parker T, 2017 Biological activities of frankincense essential oil in human dermal fibroblasts, Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214008517300020#!
Mojay G. 1997, Aromatherapy for Healing the Spirit, Rochester, Vermont, Healing Art Press.
Mojay G. 1997, Aromatherapy for Healing the Spirit, Rochester, Vermont, Healing Art Press.
Price S & Price L. 2012, Aromatherapy for Health Professionals 4th Edition, Leicestershire, UK, Churchill Livingstone